Variations on the Goldberg I

by Maureen Buja, Interlude

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) published his well-known Goldberg Variations, BWV 988, in 1741, in the 4th part of his Clavier-Übung (collection of keyboard music). Its creation story, as told by Bach’s biographer Johann Nikolaus Forkel (1749–1818), wrote that Count Hermann Karl von Keyserling, president of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg and Russian ambassador to the court of Saxony in Dresden, had commissioned the work in 1738 for performance by his protégé, the young harpsichordist Johann Gottlieb Goldberg (1727–1756), to amuse him during his nights of insomnia.

Herman Karl von Keyserlingk

Count Keyserlingk discovered the extremely talented Goldberg when the boy was only age 10 and sponsored him to study with both Johann Sebastian Bach and his oldest son, Wilhelm Friedmann. According to Forkel, writing in 1802, ‘Count Keyserlingk was often ill and suffered from nights of insomnia. During such periods, Goldberg, who lived in his house, had to spend the nights in the next room to play for him. Once the Count told Bach that he would like for his Goldberg some harpsichord pieces of such a light and cheerful character that he, Keyserlingk, could be entertained a little during his sleepless nights. Bach thought that he could best fulfil this wish by writing variations…. The Count later called them only “his” variations. He could never get enough of them, and for a long time, whenever sleepless nights came, he always repeated: “Dear Goldberg, play me one of my variations”.’

Bach composed the work with the idea of Goldberg as the performer, but rumours to the contrary aside did not dedicate the work to either Goldberg or Keyserlingk. The Goldberg Variations takes its name from Goldberg as its first performer.

Goldberg was a talented performer from an early age, and after his study with W.F. and J.S. Bach, his own compositions showed their influence. As the young Goldberg took up the new galant style, his compositions also anticipated works by J.S.’s son, C.P.E. Bach. Goldberg died at the age of 29 of tuberculosis and was declared to be a great loss to the Dresden court. Being in close proximity to his teacher, J.S. Bach, who had been appointed ‘Royal Court Composer’ to the Dresden Court in 1736, Goldberg disparaged his own compositions, often tearing them up, but current reassessment of works such as his harpsichord concertos has done much to show him as an outstanding composer, albeit one who died too young.

The Goldberg Variations, as published in the Clavier-Übung IV, noted the quality of the work: ‘Keyboard exercise, consisting of an ARIA with diverse variations for harpsichord with two manuals. Composed for connoisseurs, for the refreshment of their spirits…’.

J.S. Bach: Clavier-Übung IV, 1741, title page

As described on the title page, the work is a variation set, beginning with an original aria composed by Bach and followed by 30 variations. The aria first appears in 1725 in the Clavierbüchlein copied by Bach’s second wife, Anna Magdalena, and opens with a chaconne bass in its first 8 bars. 

The variations that follow ‘are derived from the harmonic structure and the bass line of the aria and are grouped in threes, every third variation a canon at a higher numerical interval, with the final variation a quodlibet, a hotch-potch seemingly remote from the original aria, which follows in conclusion’.

When heard on harpsichord, the work has a slightly different feel than the more common modern piano recordings. The softness of the piano is replaced by the more brittle sound of the plucked harpsichord, which may explain why Goldberg was described as playing it from a room separate from that holding the insomniac Count. 

We will be looking at the other versions of this work, i.e., the Goldberg in the hands and sounds of other instruments. As a teaser for what will be coming next, here’s the first variation done not by a keyboard instrument but by a vocal group:

SLIXS – “Quer Bach” – Goldberg Variationen, BWV 988, Variation Nr. 1 

This performance is by the German group SLIXS, who describe themselves as an ‘a cappella band’, and who bring all sorts of modern styles to our Baroque familiar.

Widowhood and a Murder: Dvořák’s Holoubek

 by Maureen Buja, Interlude

 Antonín Dvořák  (1841–1904) loved the poetry of Karl Jaromir Erben, particularly his collection of Czech folk ballads, The Garland, published in 1853. Starting in 1896, once he’d finished his nine symphonies and his other major orchestral works, Dvořák used the ballads from The Garland as the basis for a series of ‘orchestral ballads’. He started with Vodník (‘The Water Goblin’, b195), Polednice (‘The Noon Witch’, b196), and Zlatý kolovrat (‘The Golden Spinning-Wheel’, b197) all at the same time, completing them just a few weeks later, and then started on Holoubek (‘The Wild Dove’, b198) a few months later, completing it in November 1896.

Antonín Dvořák, 1882

This development of the symphonic poem, all based on one literary source, was not unprecedented for Dvořák. Earlier works had literary elements, the most familiar perhaps being in his works written in America (the New World Symphony and the American Quartet).

The Garland, or, to give it its full name, The Garland of National Legends, was a cycle of 13 ballads. Holoubek, or The Dove (The Wood Dove, the Wood Pigeon) story starts in a graveyard. A widow mourns her recently departed husband and is seen by a passing youth (handsome, of course). After three days of resistance, she accedes to his demands and in a month they are married. The story then turns – she’s a widow because she gave her first husband a deadly potion so she could marry the handsome youth, and then at the end of the poem, after 3 years with her new husband, the sound of the dove, cooing in the oak tree over her first husband’s grave, drives her to suicide.

The tone poem opens with a funeral march, with a recurring march-beat of the funeral procession under the melodies. The flutes and violins bring in the young widow, but the following subject, on oboe and trumpets, belies the presented innocence. The widow’s tears, sarcastically presented in the flutes and violins, are another indication of her false heart. The handsome young man is signalled by a distant trumpet. The funeral march continues, but in a more spritely manner – perhaps the inconsolable widow is approachable after all!

The central section is the wedding of the widow and her new husband.

In the final section we return to the graveyard and the mournful call of the dove in the oak tree above the husband’s grave. Dvořák gives this an eery setting with harp and strings, wailing flutes, and a crying oboe. The widow / bride is driven to remorse and drowns herself, and the funeral march returns at the end. Although Erben’s poem ends with a pitiless description of her grave – no tombstone and her head laid only on a rock, buried in the middle of a field – Dvořák gives us an optimistic ending with a return of the dove’s song and the minor key turned to major one.

Antonín Dvořák: Holoubek, Op. 110, B. 198

Nikolai Ravinovich

This recording was made in 1954 with Nikolai Rabinovich conducting the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra.

Nikolai Rabinovich (1908–1972) graduated from the Leningrad Conservatory in 1931 and was appointed professor of conducting there in 1968. His students included Yuri Simonov, Neeme Järvi, Vladislav Chachin, Vitaliy Kutsenko, and Victor Yampolsky, all of whom had exemplary conducting careers.

The Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra, now the Saint Petersburg Philharmonic, was founded in 1802 and started as the orchestra for the Court of Alexander III of Russia. Its period of greatest achievement occurred under the leadership of Yevgeny Mravinsky, who led it for 50 years (1938–1988). This saw its first tours to the west and the start of their studio recordings. Under Mravinsky, the orchestra recorded seven of Shostakovich’s symphonies.

Performed by

Nikolai Rabinovich
The Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra

Recorded in 1954

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Impressing London: Haydn’s Symphony No. 100

by Maureen Buja, Interlude

Joseph Haydn (1732–1809), largely released from duties with the Esterhazy family after the death of Prince Nikolaus in 1790, was free to make his second visit to London in 1794.

Thomas Hardy: Haydn, 1791 (London: Royal College of Music)

He had been commissioned by Johann Peter Salomon to write 6 new symphonies for the start of Salomon’s new subscription season. Haydn had met Salomon when the impresario met him in Vienna and succeeded in getting him to travel to England, first in 1791—1792 and then in 1794–1795. The acquaintance suited both – Haydn needed the exposure, and Salomon needed material for his concerts. For Salomon and London, Haydn wrote 12 symphonies (Nos. 93 to 104), first known as the Salomon Symphonies and now as the London Symphonies.

Thomas Hardy: Johann Peter Salomon, ca 792 (London: Royal College of Music)

Symphony No. 100 in G major was played on 31 March 1794 in the Hanover Square Rooms, i.e., in the heart of fashionable London. The original title for the work was the Grand Military Overture, due to the use of kettledrums and other percussion in the second movement. The end of the last movement sees the reappearance of the kettledrums and military percussion, tying the work together.

The final movement is a rondo, and the recurring main theme became widely popular in England, where it would appear as a dance theme in ballrooms around the country, anxious to reflect what was happening in London.

This recording was made in 1960, with Bernhard Paumgartner leading the Camerata Academica of the Salzburg Mozarteum.

Bernhard Paumgartner

Bernhard Paumgartner (1887–1971) was a leading Austrian composer, conductor, and musicologist. He taught at the Mozarteum in Salzburg, where he was Herbert von Karajan’s composition teacher and brought out his conducting skills. He was an important musical focus for the city, being one of the founders of the Salzburg Festival.

The Mozarteum Orchestra Salzburg has a very direct connection with the Mozart family – it was founded in 1841 with the help of Wolfgang’s widow Constanze and his sons, Franz Xaver and Karl Thomas, as part of the Cathedral Music Association and Mozarteum that Constanze was promoting. The orchestra was named the Mozarteum Orchestra in 1908.

Performed by

Bernhard Paumgartner
Camerata Academica du Mozarteum de Salzbourg

Recorded in 1960

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When Simple is Necessary: Fauré’s Berceuse

by Maureen Buja

A berceuse is a piece to put you to sleep – particularly if you’re a small child in a cradle. It’s usually in triple meter with a very simple tonality – wild and chromatic is just out of the question if you want it to be a lullaby. French composer Gabriel Fauré (1845–1924) composed a Berceuse, op. 16, that continues to be a performer’s favourite.

John Singer Sargent: Gabriel Fauré, 1899 (Paris: Musée de la Musique)

Fauré made his name at two major French churches as an organist. First at the Église Saint-Sulpice, where he started as the choirmaster in 1871 under the organist Chares-Marie Widor before moving to the Église de la Madeleine in 1874, where he was deputy organist under Camille Saint-Saëns, taking over when the senior organist was on one of his frequent tours. Although he was recognised as a leading organist and played it professionally for some 40 years, he didn’t appreciate its size, with one commentator saying, ‘for a composer of such delicacy of nuance, and such sensuality, the organ was simply not subtle enough’.

In 1879, he wrote a little Berceuse that was quickly appreciated by violinists. Fauré himself didn’t quite see what the fuss was about, but the work went into the repertoire of many violinists in the late 19th century and was recorded by the great Belgian violinist Eugène Ysaÿe.

The premiere of the work was given in February 1880 at the Société Nationale de Musique (which Fauré was a founding member) with the violinist Ovide Musin and the composer at the piano. The French publisher Julien Hamelle was at the performance and quickly put the work into print, where it sold over 700 copies in its first year alone.

It has been arranged for cello, violin and orchestra, and even as a vocalise for text-less voice and harp. 

This recording was made in 1935, with violinist Henry Merckel, under Piero Coppola leading the Orchestre des Concerts Pasdeloup.

Henry Merckel

Henry Merckel (1887–1969) was a classical violinist from Belgium who graduated from the Paris Conservatoire in 1912. He had his own string quartet and was concertmaster of the Paris Conservatoire Orchestra (now known as the Orchestra de Paris) from 1929 to 1934, and also served as concertmaster of the Paris Opera Orchestra from 1930 until 1960.

Piero Coppola

The Italian conductor Piero Coppola (1888–1971) studied piano and composition at the Milan Conservatory. He graduated in 1910 and, in 1911, was already conducting at La Scala. He is known for his recordings of Debussy and Ravel in the 1920s and 1930s, including the first recordings of Debussy’s La Mer and Ravel’s Boléro, with his Debussy recordings being praised as ‘close to Debussy’s thoughts’. From 1923 to 1934, he was the artistic director of the recording company La Voix de son Maître, the French branch of The Gramophone Company, under whose name this recording was made.

The Orchestre des Concerts Pasdeloup, founded in 1861 by Jules Pasdeloup, is the oldest symphony orchestra in France. They scheduled their concerts for Sundays to catch concert-goers who weren’t able to make evening concerts. It started out with the name of Concerts Populaires and ran until 1884. It was started up again in 1919 under Serge Sandberg as the Orchestre Pasdeloup.

Performed by

Henry Merckel
Piero Coppola
Orchestre des Concerts Pasdeloup

Recorded in 1935

Bringing Folk Music to Life: Grieg’s Lyric Pieces

by Maureen Buja, Interlude

Edvard Grieg (1843 – 1907) invented the idea of Lyric Pieces, but it’s really part of a long list of character pieces for the piano. With the rise of the home piano, there was an immediate market for music for the instrument and the home players.

Eilif Peterssen: Edvard Grieg, 1891 (Oslo: Nasjonalmuseet)

Edvard Grieg (1843–1907) was born in Bergen, Norway, and when his skills were recognised by the violinist and composer Ole Bull, he was sent to Leipzig at age 15 to attend the conservatory. Although he later complained about the conservatory, there is no doubt that he received very good and solid musical training. In a city with an extremely active musical life, he heard music he never would have encountered in Norway and it made a lasting impression on him.

When he returned to Scandinavia, he first went to Copenhagen and there started to make his name as a composer. Meeting the Norwegian composer Rikard Nordraak, Grieg came to believe, as Nordraak did, that the future of Norwegian music lay in nationalism and that folksong was key to this.

In 1866, Grieg returned to Norway and settled in Christiana, a part of the capital city of Oslo. Although he wrote many major works, his identity with folk music tainted his reputation as someone who simply borrowed from folk music. Grieg’s own compositional style followed that of traditional Norwegian music: ‘Much instrumental Norwegian folk-music is built from small melodic themes, units which are repeated with small variations in appoggiaturas and sometimes with rhythmic displacements’. Development sections are rare. In following this style, he made it difficult for listeners to tell the difference between his original works and folk music borrowings.

The rise of the piano (it’s estimated that in 1910, more than 600,000 pianos were produced) gave Grieg a ready audience for his piano pieces. They were so popular that his publisher, C.F. Peters in Leipzig, eventually gave him an annual salary for the right to have first choice of his new works.

In his collections of Lyric Pieces, there were eventually 66 works published in 10 albums in the 34 years between 1867 and 1901. His fifth book, Op. 54, published in 1891, is considered to contain his best work in the series. The idea of Nature binds the collection together, and the source material is Grieg’s own, not coming from folk music.

The fourth piece in the collection, the March of the Trolls, takes the equivalent of the Norwegian boogieman as its subject. When the irritable, short-tempered trolls come out after dark with their plans to wreak havoc on quiet households everywhere, beware!

This piece, originally for piano, was orchestrated by conductor Anton Seidl for the New York Philharmonic as part of a work he called Norwegian Suite. This was later revised by Grieg as Lyric Suite with one piece removed, another added, and the order shifted. Grieg’s revised version replaced Seidl’s original version, which is rarely heard anymore.

Golovanov (R) and Shostakovich (L)

This recording was made in Moscow in 1949, with Nikolai Golovanov leading the Orchestre Symphonique de la Radio de l’URSS. Soviet composer and conductor Nikolai Semyonovich Golovanov (1891–1953) was one of the leading conductors of his time, and was extensively associated with the Bolshoi Opera. He was recognised as a People’s Artist of the USSR and Honoured Artist of the RSFSR, was awarded the Stalin Prize Winner four times, and was also awarded the Order of Lenin, Order of the Red Banner of Labor, Medal ‘For the Defence of Moscow’ and Medal ‘For Valiant Labor in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945’. He was dismissed by Stalin over a disagreement about casting a Jewish singer for the title role in a recording of Boris Godunov. His friends said it was his shame over this dismissal that led to his death.

Performed by

Nikolai Golovanov
Orchestre Symphonique de la Radio de l’URSS

Recorded in 1949

Searching for a Button, Searching for Life: George Benjamin’s Picture a Day Like This

by Maureen Buja

English composer George Benjamin (b. 1960) started working with British playwright Martin Crimp (b.1956) in 2006, resulting in four operas: Into the Little Hill (2006), Written on Skin (2012), Lessons in Love and Violence (2018), and Picture a Day Like This (2023).

George Benjamin (Photo by Matthew Lloyd)

Martin Crimp

The first is a chamber opera based on the story of the Pied Piper of Hamelin.

Written on the Skin is set in 13th -century Provence and tells the legend told by the troubadour Guillaume de Cabestanh, where an unfaithful wife is served a dinner of the heart of her lover. When she’s told what she’s eaten, she turns the tables on her murderous husband by declaring that nothing can now remove the taste of her lover’s heart from her. As her husband rushes at her to kill her, she jumps off the balcony to her death.

Miniature of Guillem de Cabestany / Guillaume de Cabestanh, 13th century (Gallica: BnF ms. 12473: btv1b60007960, folio 89v)

Lessons in Love and Violence is about the relationship between King Edward II (1284–1327) and Piers Gaveston (1284–1312). Gaveston impressed Edward I, who assigned him to the household of his son, Edward of Caernafon. Edward I kept separating the two because Edward of Caernafon was so extreme in his partiality to Piers. What is unclear is the relationship, variously described with them being friends, lovers, or sworn brothers.

Edward II receiving the English Crown, 1350 (British Library, Royal MS 20 A ii, folio 10)

For the 2023 Aix-en-Provence Festival, the new text was for another chamber opera with 5 singers and a 22-member orchestra. The setting is a kind of never-when and fairy-tale like; the characters occupy separate worlds and operate on a kind of ‘dream-like logic’.

Marianne Crebassa in Picture a Day Like This at the Aix-en-Provence festival, 2023 (Photograph by Jean-Louis Fernandez)

A woman’s child dies, and, wrapping the boy in silk, she prepares the body for cremation. People in black arrive to take the body and one tells her: ‘Find one happy person in this world and cut one button from their sleeve – do it before night and your child will live’. She gives the mother (called simply Woman in the opera) a paper list that tells her where to look.

Picture a Day Like This: Scene 1, The Woman and the Death Attendants, 2023 (Festival-d’Aix-En-Provence) (photo by Jean-Louis-Fernandez)

George Benjamin: Picture a Day Like This – Scene 1: The Page (Marianne Crebass, Woman)

It’s Quest Opera, but with a dark and sombre center. The Woman goes off, and first finds 2 lovers, clothes discarded to the side. She asks for a button, as they’re clearly happy in themselves. They agree but then get into an argument about past and current lovers, and jealousy and happiness flee. So does the mother when one of the lovers looks to her to add to his list.

Next, she finds an Artisan. He’s retired and sitting happily in the sun. He confirms he’s happy, but when she asks for a button, he refuses. He was a button maker, and all the buttons on his suit were made with his hands. What he wants is the knife that she should use to cut off the button. What he also wants is chlorpromazine, used to treat psychiatric disorders. As he rolls up his sleeves, she sees all the cuts on his skin from all the times he’s tried to commit suicide. The woman leaves as the nurse leads the unhappy man away.

The Woman (Marianne Crebassa) and the Artisan (John Brancy)

The Composer and her assistant arrive next. The Composer is so busy that happiness has no part in her life.

In the middle, in an Aria, the woman reflects on the hopeless people she’s just met: ‘fools – vain fools – the insane’ when what she wanted was miracles. If dead flowers can come to life, why not her son? She throws away the paper list she was given.

The Collector enters. He says he’s on her list and shows her his collection of paintings: Warhol’s Gold Marilyn, Manet’s last vase of flowers, a book of hours, a Matisse….

Warhol: Gold Marilyn Monroe, 1962
(New York: Museum of Modern Art)

He refers to his rooms of artworks as his rooms of miracles. He invites her to take anything that will make her happy…but she must love him. And, he doesn’t have any buttons. She continues her search, paper list back in her hand.

Her last meeting is with Zabelle, a woman seemingly like herself. In a beautiful garden, Zabelle appears when the Woman reads her description on the paper list. She has 2 children playing on the swings; her husband lies half-asleep in the rose garden…can the mother share in this happy and beautiful life? Zabelle says to look again at the garden: shadows are falling, men are at the gate to occupy the park and destroy things, she’s dropped the baby boy, and he seems cold…it’s all an illusion. There is no happiness. Zabelle says that just because her name is on a list doesn’t mean she’s happy because she, in fact doesn’t exist. As she disappears, she twists a button off her sleeve and holds it out, but an invisible barrier separates the two characters.

Picture a Day Like This: Scene 7, The Woman and the Death Attendants, 2023 (Festival-d’Aix-En-Provence) (photo by Jean-Louis-Fernandez)

At the end, the Woman finds herself back where she started, the death attendants are still in the room. They tell her the quest was in vain because

The page is torn from the vast book of the dead –
punched through by grief –
sewn with a human thread –
no one can alter it.
Now do you understand?

The woman smiles at them and bids them to look at ‘the bright button in my hand’.

It’s an intriguing and puzzling story – how things appear on the surface do not survive closer scrutiny. New characters bring different definitions of happiness and different pictures of their hope and despair – lovers are unfaithful, the artisan was broken, the composer was self-obsessed, the collector was lonely, and even the beautiful Zabelle is happy only when it’s not dark. The Woman goes through an impossible journey but still emerges victorious at the end. It was about her own happiness, not others.

The composer said the sequential scenes made it feel like he was writing a new opera for each scene – but, on the other hand, he welcomed the challenge. Another part of the challenge the composer and writer set each other is to find something new and different for each work: fairy tales to stories of the troubadours to royal scandals, and now a dream quest – they couldn’t be more different in the subject if they tried!

The opera closes ambiguously. In the final scene, Zabelle describes the change from the day’s beauty to the night’s horrors, the Woman confronts the women who gave her the impossible quest and shows them her button. Does she get her son back? It’s not clear.

George Benjamin: Picture a Day Like This – Scene VII: III. Picture a Day Like This (Anna Prohaska, Zabelle; Marianne Crebass, Woman)

George Benjamin: Picture a Day Like This
Nimbus Records: NI 8116
Release date: 6 September 2024

Official Website