It's all about the classical music composers and their works from the last 400 years and much more about music. Hier erfahren Sie alles über die klassischen Komponisten und ihre Meisterwerke der letzten vierhundert Jahre und vieles mehr über Klassische Musik.
The real story of American heiress Florence Foster Jenkins, the ‘world’s worst opera singer’. Picture: Florence Foster Jenkins/iPlayer
By Maddy Shaw Roberts, ClassicFM London
Florence Foster Jenkins, played by Meryl Streep in the 2016 biopic, was an American socialite and aspiring coloratura soprano. But everyone who went to her concerts was in on a strange joke: she was an absolutely terrible singer.
Florence Foster Jenkins built a career in the early 20th century on being “the world’s worst opera singer”. Her flat-by-a-country-mile top Fs, flamboyant costumes and self-parodic album titles have been the subject of fascination for years since, her legacy so enduring that Meryl Streep and Hugh Grant starred in a film about her life story a few years ago.
The daughter of a wealthy lawyer, Jenkins would sing at private gatherings organised by her husband, St Clair Bayfield (Hugh Grant), performing for friends and loyal followers who cherished and even milked Jenkins’ unwavering support for music and the arts. Knowing Jenkins’ influence, they kept their cringes and chuckles to themselves.
Eventually, the cod coloratura managed to squeeze her way – flamboyant bird wings, tiara and all – into New York’s prestigious Carnegie Hall, after which she was ruthlessly ridiculed by critics.
Two days later, Jenkins had a heart attack. She died a month later in her Manhattan home at age 76. Here’s her extraordinary story.
Read more: Florence Foster Jenkins proved you can be a terrible singer and still be absolutely awesome
Florence Foster Jenkins is played by Meryl Streep in the 2006 film. Picture: Getty
Who was Florence Foster Jenkins?
Florence Foster Jenkins was a socialite from a well-off American family, who had one dream: to be a great opera singer. She watched her contemporaries, the likes of Lily Pons – played in the film by Russian soprano Aida Garifullina – in concert and was transfixed.
“I could do that,” thought Jenkins. And so, believing that her love of music could turn her into a gifted singer, she reached for the moon and grasped it with both hands.
She found a singing teacher and hired private pianist Cosmé McMoon (played by Big Bang Theory actor Simon Helberg) to accompany her lessons and with the help of her philandering husband, started to put on invite-only recitals.
Jenkins, whose father was a wealthy Philadelphia lawyer, had no trouble finding audiences willing to listen to her “singing”. She also supported young artists, who knew that her Jenkins could help them make it in the industry.
Her most famous recordings range from the lofty heights of Johann Strauss II’s ‘Laughing Song’ to Mozart’s ‘Queen of the Night’ aria, which featured on albums whose titles include the brilliant The Glory (????) of the Human Voice and Murder on the High Cs.
Jenkins, many believed, knew of her limitations as a singer – and cared not a fig.
Did Florence Foster Jenkins know she was bad?
Undecided, it seems.
One of the young artists Jenkins supported, Louise Frances Bickford, later became the teacher of vocal coach Bill Schuman, who in an interview told NPR that Bickford “said that Florence was in on the joke”.
Schuman added: “She loved the audience reaction and she loved singing. But she knew.”
Mezzo-soprano Marilyn Horne disagrees. She told NPR: “I would say that she maybe didn’t know. First of all, we can’t hear ourselves as others hear us. We have to go by a series of sensations. We have to feel where it is.”
What we do know is that Jenkins was a delightfully flamboyant performer, waltzing through the audience at her recitals and throwing out bouquets of flowers. One anecdote says that she was involved in a minor taxi crash, went to scream and discovered that she could sing higher than the F sharp she had thought to be her limit. She thanked the taxi driver by sending him a box of cigars.
Did Florence Foster Jenkins have syphilis?
Florence Foster Jenkins caught syphilis from her first husband. The disease apparently affected her hearing, giving her tinnitus. Some reports even say that was what prevented her from singing in tune.
Did Meryl Streep do all her own singing in the film?
Talking about the film, Streep told Radio Times: “I feel like I’m a B, B+ singer – I’m very well aware of my limitations. Much as I would have liked to be a good singer after I began studying opera as a child, I gave it up very early and sort of ruined my voice with smoking, drinking and debauchery.”
Odd as it may seem for playing a character known for their terrible singing, Streep – who, herself, trained in opera – worked with a vocal coach to help her prepare for the role of Jenkins.
Twice a month for four months, Streep worked with music professor Arthur Levy. First, they learned the pieces properly. Then, they added the mess-ups. “These arias are no joke, even if you’re singing off-key,” Levy said. “Especially off-key, which strains the voice.”
Streep said she practised the ‘Queen of the Night’ aria “eight times one day. And then came back and sang it eight times the next day”.
As a result, Streep is extraordinarily good at singing badly.
Talking on Lorraine, Streep says of Jenkins’ curious technique: “She’d go off in the weirdest places and it was the particularity of her getting things wrong that was so funny. You can hear her getting ready to sing something and she spends all of her voice on the beginning of the phrase and there’s nothing left at the end, and she trails off.”
What happened at the Carnegie Hall recital?
The film production of Jenkins’ story culminates in the amateur soprano singing the ‘Queen of the Night’ aria at New York’s Carnegie Hall. She invites a large army contingent to thank her country’s armed forces, who evidently weren’t prepared for the joke. As soon as Jenkins starts to sing, the soldiers collapse into laughter.
In real life, Jenkins really did perform at Carnegie Hall, her debut selling out within two hours. Her audiences had been begging her to perform there for years and flocked there in their masses as soon as they got the chance.
On Carnegie Hall’s website, a writer remembers how that night, “She walked onstage in these ridiculous costumes that she’d made herself. She’d throw roses out into the audience, her assistants would go out and collect them, and she’d throw them out into the audience again. The audience would not let her go home. They cheered her and clapped.”
What happened to Florence Foster Jenkins?
Two days after the Carnegie Hall performance, Jenkins had a heart attack. And one month later, she died in her Manhattan home at 76.
In her final hour, Jenkins reportedly said: “People may say I can’t sing, but no one can ever say I didn’t sing.”
Florence Foster Jenkins, the world’s best bad singer, brought out the amateur and aspiring musician in all of us. What a legacy to have left.
When comparing artists, it’s not always easy to differentiate. Artistry is very subjective, and the methods used for comparison change depending on the context. And although this is true for almost every form of art, with violinists, an indescribable discernment between players does exist.
More than simply mastering the execution required to create music on the violin, to achieve recognition as one of the top classical violinists of all time, a performer must possess something special. A quality that sets that person apart from others, defines a particularly unique expression, and subsequently earns him or her a place among exceptional virtuosos throughout history.
These nine violinists have attained that coveted status. As a group, these artisans represent the ultimate example of classical violin talent.
Jascha Heifetz (1901-1974)
An undisputed master, Jascha Heifetz ranks as one of the most beloved, best violinists of all time. His 65-year long career began at the age of five and included a particularly incredible Carnegie Hall debut at the age of 16. In a much celebrated letter, George Benard Shaw wrote to Heifetz after his London debut (at age 19) that, “If you provoke a jealous God by playing with such superhuman perfection you will die young. I earnestly advise you to play something badly every night before going to bed, instead of saying your prayers. No mortal should presume to play so faultlessly.” His achievements and truly masterful performances were outlined in a recent installment of PBS’s American Masters, entitled “God’s Fiddler,” and the recording legacy he left still inspires listeners and other musicians today.
Niccolo Paganini (1782-1840)
This Italian musician, composer, and violin virtuoso was reputed to be among the greatest players of his time. And although his career was plagued with gambling and alcohol problems, he remains one of the most celebrated artists of classical music. In a time devoid of instant, world-wide communications, his fame garnered mythical scope. This well-known classical violinist’s composition, 24 Caprices for Solo Violin Op.1 are still regarded with awe and appreciation for their complexity; and he is credited with popularizing many of the techniques considered standard today.
David Fyodorovich Oistrakh (1908-1974)
Awarded a post-humus Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist Performance with an Orchestra, Russian virtuoso David Oistrakh is considered another of the most premier violinists of the twentieth century. His command of the art earned him numerous awards and accolades during his almost 60 year career.
Itzhak Perlman (1945-)
Undeniably, Itzhak Perlman is perhaps today’s most preeminent classical violinist. Having attained almost super-star status, this pedagogue, composer, and artist is one of the most sought-after musicians year after year. His mastery of the instrument, endearing charm, and vivid musical expression are widely acclaimed, and have been delighting listeners since he was a child. He has appeared with the finest orchestras in the world, been honored with numerous awards by a host of organizations, and continues to enthrall audiences with his amazing ability.
Hilary Hahn (1979-)
This young American artist made her professional debut at the age of twelve and has been recording classical music since she was 16. Jennifer Higdon’s violin concerto, written specifically for her, earned the Pulitzer Prize, and the many international awards she’s earned solidify her spot as a top violinist.
Friedrich “Fritz” Kreisler (1875-1962)
This Austrian-born violinist and composer is widely hailed as one of the all-time best violinists. The personal expression he infused into his performances, containing such expressive phrasing, passionate vibrato and melodic focus, has ensured that his style remains very recognizable, even today. He appeared on the cover of Time magazine, February 2, 1925, and his classical recordings and compositions are still widely celebrated.
Pablo de Sarasate (1844–1908)
Spanish-born violinist, Pablo de Sarasate was a celebrated nineteenth century master whose talent led to his performing the premiers of many, now famous, compositions. His own compositions are still played today and he is celebrated for his unique opera medleys including "Concert Fantasies on Carmen" of 1883. He toured the Americas, South Africa, and the Far East during his career and was instrumental in helping to incorporate Mediterranean sounds into classical music.
Nathan Mironovich Milstein (1904-1992)
With a career that spanned almost 70 years, this violinist, transcriber, and composer is beloved for both his performance ability, remarkable stamina and precision of technique, even at age 82 when he made his last public performance in Stockholm, 1986. His amazing articulation is still celebrated and during his career he achieved numerous awards, including a Grammy in 1975 for his recording of Bach's Sonatas and Partitas.
Sarah Chang (1980-)
A child prodigy, this American violinist attains the ranks of the best classical violinists for her exceptional ability, pure intonation and the artistic passion she pours into each performance. A host of accolades and awards testify to this virtuoso’s undeniable gift.
Published by Revelle Team on May 16, 2016/Edited by Klaus Döring
Estelle Jackson takes nine exams on nine instruments in one day. Picture: Queen's College
By Maddy Shaw Roberts, ClassicFM London
Huge props to this heroic music teacher for taking nine musical instrument exams in four hours, and passing every single one.
A music teacher has broken records to take nine musical instrument exams in one day.
After weeks of cramming, Estelle Jackson took exams in guitar, trombone, cello, xylophone, singing, bassoon, piano and soprano saxophone – all in the space of four hours.
Incredibly, Jackson deliberately settled on instruments she was not already adept at playing.
The visiting music teacher at Queen’s College in Taunton, Somerset has been told her valiant efforts have never been done before.
“Colleagues, and people I don’t even know, have been saying ‘That’s crazy, that’s absolutely amazing’. But to me, it just feels normal because I’ve been working on it for ages,” she told ITV.
Estelle Jackson broke records with her nine exams on nine instruments. Picture: Queen's College
On 28 June, Jackson found out that she had passed all nine exams, comprising Initial Grade Trumpet, Grade 1 Classical Guitar, Grade 2 Trombone, Grade 3 Cello, Grade 4 Xylophone, Grade 5 Singing, Grade 6 Bassoon, Grade 7 Piano and Grade 8 Soprano Saxophone.
In the process, she has raised £2,100 for Stand Against Violence and The Sidney Lawton Music Trust, giving students the chance to practise and develop their musical abilities with the latter.
“It’s been brilliant,” she added. “The amount that people have donated has blown my mind... that’s the most I’ve ever managed to raise, though obviously I couldn’t have done it on my own because my colleagues have been so supportive.”
The music teacher of 25 years said that taking one exam after the other was tricky, as it didn’t allow time for disappointments to settle.
Jackson is told her musical feat has never been done before. Picture: Queen's College
She explains: “I had a really difficult time in the bassoon exam – I was a bit disappointed, and then I didn’t play the piano as well as I could have. I said to the examiner, ‘I’m messing up scales that I shouldn’t have and it’s because I’m upset’.
“I came out of the piano thinking, ‘I hope that’s enough’, and then I thought, ‘I’m actually really cross and I’m going to go in there and show her what I can really do’.
“And I think I did, with my saxophone exam, which went well.”
In the end, Jackson received five distinctions, three merits and a pass. Brava.
Things are finally starting to open up again, which is fantastic news for we string musicians who love to attend live music concerts. And, we have to admit, a silver lining of this past year is that major symphonies worldwide have perfected the art of broadcasting live events online.
We envision online concert streaming as the wave of the music tech future, allowing audience members to attend "live" concerts from home when it isn't possible to be there in person.
July 10 & 11: Boston Symphony Orchestra features violinist Baiba Skride (Morning Rehearsal & Concert)
Have you ever wondered what it's like to practice and perform with a top symphony? If so, we highly recommend purchasing tickets to BSO's "Saturday Morning Rehearsal" with violinist Baiba Skride. They begin with a pre-rehearsal talk, and then you get to see BSO conductor Andris Nelsons work with the orchestra and soloist. You'll witness how even the most esteemed professional musicians are still constructively guided to be the best they can be.
The main concert takes place on July 11 at 2:30 p.m., when the symphony will perform Carlos Simon's "Fate Now Conquers," a Sibelius "Violin Concerto," and Dvořák's Symphony No. 6. This concert is part of the larger BSO annual Tanglewood Music Festival, running from 7/19 - 8/16)
June 23 - August 4. Bravo!Vail Music Festival
Back for its 34th season, Bravo!Vail Music Festival is a favorite for music lovers throughout the continental United States and the rest of the world. Set in one of the most scenic locations in the Rocky Mountains, the 2021 Bravo!Vail Music Festival showcases four phenomenal orchestras throughout the season: Academy of St Martin in the Fields, Dallas Symphony Orchestra, the Philadelphia Orchestra, and the New York Philharmonic.
As in summers past, chamber music will play a vital role this year, with programs highlighting both old favorites and contemporary works. The return of free concerts throughout the summer will bring no-cost programs to the community in an approachable way.
If you love the broad spectrum of grander music festival events, you should also check out:
The Aspen Music Festival (7/1-8/22)
Ravinia (July)
Glyndebourne Festival Opera (5/20-8/29)
Glimmerglass (7/15-8/17)
Salzburg Music Festival (7/17-8-31)
July 28: Black Violin at the Tobin Center for the Performing Arts in San Antonio, Texas
If you'd prefer a more contemporary take on string music, we recommend hearing Black Violin, who will be performing at the Tobin Center for the Performing Arts in San Antonio. This particular concert is part of Black Violin's "Impossible Tour" (ironic tour name pun not intended!), showing how the center has rolled with the pandemic punches.
Black Violin are advocates for educational outreach and, in the past 12 months have performed for over 100,000 students in the US and Europe. Their Impossible Tour will spread the message that anything is possible, and there are no limits to what one can achieve, regardless of circumstance.
September 4: Tchaikovsky Spectacular with the Pacific Symphony
What a glorious way to close out the summer concert and music festival season! No SummerFest is complete without the Pacific Symphony performing Tchaikovsky's thrilling 1812 Overture, complete with live cannons and brilliant fireworks. Enjoy the spectacle as you also listen to the greatest hits of some of Russia's greatest Romantic composers. Featuring guest artist, pianist George Li, the event occurs at the Orange County Fair and Event Center.
Nothing is more inspiring than being in the presence of expert string musicians who excel in their craft. We hope this summer allows you the opportunity to attend at least one event in person.
It’s not actually all Classical (big ‘C’) at all, so why has the name stuck as an umbrella term for Western instrumental, orchestral and choral music?
The Oxford Dictionarydefines ‘classical music’ as “music written in a Western musical tradition, usually using an established form (for example a symphony). Classical music is generally considered to be serious and to have a lasting value.”
Oxford’s definition is just one example of how widespread the generalized use of ‘classical music’ is when it comes to describing instrumental, orchestral, vocal, choral and other forms of Western music.
But let’s really think about that term… ‘classical’. Why do we use it as an umbrella, catch-all phrase for Western music, and where do the Renaissance, Baroque, Romantic eras, and beyond, fit?
Here’s why the world has landed on ‘classical music’ to describe the powerful combinations of instruments, melody and harmony that make up the canon of Western music history.
Big ‘C’ versus small ‘c’
Before we go further, let’s unpack this quickly. We use classical music (small ‘c’) to mean Western instrumental, orchestral, vocal and choral music – created for both secular and sacred settings.
But you may have also heard ‘classical’ in the context of the Classical era of music, roughly 1750-1830 and encompassing composers such as Mozart, Haydn and early Beethoven (although some say he kicked off the next era, the Romantic era (1830-1900) really).
The Classical era saw the formalization of fixed structures, compositional techniques and orchestral sizes and shapes in the symphony, comic operas, and the Classical piano sonata.
Orchestras went through great changes: the harpsichord or organ of the previous Baroque era (1600–1750) were no longer orchestras’ musical foundation, and wind instruments such as the horn, trumpet, clarinet, flute and oboe joined the strings to create a new, distinctive sound.
Society was being reshaped by the Age of Enlightenment, a time of radical change where social values focused on human rights and freedom of religion. And the architectural style of the time was all about straight lines and order (as opposed to the more ornate styles of the Baroque), reminiscent of ancient Rome and Greece – hence the term ‘Classical’.
So why has ‘classical’ stuck?
‘Classical’ seems to work as a catch-all term of Western art music genres because it evokes this Classical, ordered era of Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven in which so many instrumental, chamber, orchestral and operatic forms we still hear regularly today were established.
Indeed, the lineage of the forms and tonality established in the Classical era can be seen to thread from the works of composers of earlier eras (Baroque, Renaissance, Medieval and before), to the works of Romantic, 20th Century and contemporary artists, as well as popular Western music genres like jazz, pop, rock and beyond. So perhaps it made sense to use it as shorthand to refer back to genres pre-dating modern history’s developments in popular culture.
Another reason the term started to stick was the inclination in the 19th Century for arts, culture and society to hark back to ‘classicism’, with its straight lines and order. Classicism was desirable, heralded and promoted widely following the preceding period of opulent, ornate Baroque styles in arts and architecture. Music was among the areas unable to escape this trend
“People use this word to describe music that isn’t jazz or popular songs or folk music, just because there isn’t any other word that seems to describe it better,” the great composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein said in an installment of TV’s Young People’s Concerts, broadcast in January 1959.
Bernstein goes on to say in his programme that ‘classical’ is better than the problematic alternatives of ‘good’, ‘serious’ and ‘art’ music – all terms which of course also apply to myriad other genres, from Jazz and RnB, to folk, country pop and beyond.
We like this idea very much. And if ‘classical’ is good enough for Bernstein, it’s good enough for us.
Ask most people what they consider a romantic song, and you'll get answers like John Legend's "All of Me" or most anything from Marvin Gaye. But, as you know, the capital "R" in Romantic music is works composed in the Romantic style, which arose during the Romantic Period. But what characterizes Romantic Period music? How did it evolve? These are some of the questions we'll answer here.
At its core, composers of the Romantic Era saw music as a means of individual and emotional expression. Indeed, they considered music the art form most capable of expressing the full range of human emotion. As a result, romantic composers broadened the scope of emotional content. Music was expected to communicate to the audience, often by using a narrative form that told distinct stories.
Romantic composers prioritized the emotional or narrative content of the music above its form, which is why they broke so many of the classical composers' rules. Romantic composers didn't reject or break with the musical language developed during the Classical Period. They used its forms as a foundation for their work but felt unconstrained by them.
Beethoven is the originator of this approach. He lived and worked during the transition from the Classical to the Romantic Period, and was an inspiration to the Romantic composers who came after him.
Beethoven's symphonies "shift[ed] the terrain" for what a symphony could be. He also demonstrated coming Romantic Era characteristics, such as composing auto-biographical works and naming movements, such as the third movement of his String Quartet No. 15 in A minor, Op. 132 (Song of Thanksgiving to the Deity from a convalescent in the Lydian mode).
Ultimately, Romantic composers would evolve and expand the formalist Classical structure into a more complex, rich musical language.
Origins and context of the Romantic Period
Music was a bit late to the Romantic Period party. Historians argue over the start and end dates of the Romantic Period. Some date it as the 19th century, while others place it in the late 18th century. This is true for Romantic literature. Works like William Blake's Songs of Innocence (1789) and Samuel Coleridge's Kubla Khan (1797) are considered examples of early Romantic poetry. The Romantic Era hit its stride in the middle 1800s, encompassing all the arts and popular thought of the time.
The Romantic emphasis on individual self-expression grew out of the political ideas of individualism born during the Age of Enlightenment. However, the Romantics rejected that age's emphasis on logic and rationality. These ideas were as constraining as the rules regarding Classical music forms. They also rebelled against the hallmarks of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanization, mass production, and urbanization, which were seen as contrary to their vision of an idealized, natural state of being.
Much of Romantic Era art, including music, also reflected the tension and nationalism of war and revolution that swept across Europe from the French Revolution (1789) through the mid-century revolutions and on to the national unifications in the 1870s. Examples of this include the sculpture Departure of the Volunteers on the façade of Paris's Arc de Triomphe, which alludes to soldiers both of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars; and Spanish painter Francisco Goya's paintings depicting Spanish resistance to Napoleon.
These events, ideas, and atmosphere directly contributed to the four primary artistic trends seen in Romantic compositions.
Four primary artistic inspirations of Romantic Era music
Now that you understand the context in which Romantic music developed, it will be easy to understand why these are the artistic themes (defined more broadly than the strict musical sense of "theme") that continually appear in works throughout the period.
Conveying extreme emotional states, whether auto-biographical, taken from a literary character or situation or just a representation of being human.
Exploring nature, particularly its wilder aspects, such as using musical techniques to imitate the sounds of storms or evoke the atmosphere of a dense, mysterious forest.
Fascination with the supernatural as a reaction to scientific advances, that both demystified old beliefs and created uncertainty about where science might take humanity.
Incorporating folk music or stories as a means to proclaim or reclaim national pride.
These four themes aren't clearly delineated, as you can find many or all of them incorporated into a single work. One of the ways Romantic composers did this was by writing pieces inspired by literature. This method gave a composition with both a narrative and emotional framework for the composer.
Mendelssohn's scherzo from A Midsummer Night's Dream
One last – yet critical – artistic inspiration developed in the Romantic Era isn't thematic, but highly personal: The composer as artiste and virtuoso. Romantic composers were often more than just composers. They were likely to also be performers and/or conductors. The virtuoso had both extraordinary technical proficiency and widespread acclaim. Paganini, Liszt, and Brahms are all excellent examples of the Romantic virtuoso.
The origins of the musical virtuoso are both artistic and practical. Romanticism is about self-expression, particularly through an artist's self-expression. Thus, Romantic composers felt free to strain and twist the Classical musical forms in increasingly personal ways. Today we call it "branding." Yet even then, Romantic composers were searching for a way to develop their voice through their music, one which was recognizable to audiences.
Composers of the time had more personal, creative freedom because they no longer worked under the noble patronage system that defined the Baroque and Classical Eras. Composers and musicians no longer worked at the pleasure of a duke or prince. The Industrial Revolution lead to a population boom, and many people were living in the growing cities. A broad middle class developed that had some disposable income and time to appreciate the arts. The artists followed the people, performing at festivals and other public concerts. The arts centers had moved away from the castles in the countryside to the cities.
In short, Romantic composers could find popular and financial success by composing audience-pleasing works. However, this also led to an artistic tension that remains today: The degree to which the composer gave full expression to their personal, artistic motivations (the artiste side) or whether they restrained themselves to please ticket-buying audiences. This rise of the musical virtuoso is also one reason why the Romantic Era saw the growth of the music critic, like E.T.A. Hoffmann. Music critics helped laymen audiences navigate this new artistic world.
How Romantic Era music separated itself from Classical music
he language of Romantic Era music didn't break with its Classical predecessors so much as it expanded its vocabulary and felt free to ignore Classical formalism. For example, Schubert's Unfinished doesn't confine itself to traditional eight-bar phrasing.
Nor did composers feel constrained to limit a work's exploration of different keys, as evidenced in Mahler's Symphony No. 2.
In addition to breaking existing rules, Romantic composers also developed new techniques or reinvigorated lesser used ones to express a more extensive array of emotional and narrative states. They used more extended melodies, broader ranges of tone, pitch, and tempo – more sophisticated harmonies.
Chromatic harmonies were making greater use of semitones and unusual chord progressions.
Melodies associated with an external reference, like a character or emotion being expressed. Wagner pioneered this idea with the leitmotif.
Not relying on cadence to resolve a passage, but allowing for "unending melody."
Use of rubato, adjusting tempo to reflect the level of emotional intensity the music should convey at that moment.
Increased tempos and complicated rhythms that demanded extraordinary precision and technical skill to be performed.
Greater use of techniques like sul ponticello (bowing near the bridge) and sul tasto (bowing near the fingerboard).
Romantic composers took advantage of a variety of mechanical innovations to explore richer dynamics and tones. Specifically, improvements in instrumental construction, as well as the creation of new instruments. The broader range and improvement of instruments allowed Romantic composers to express more precise gradations of volume and tone. This included longer, soaring crescendos and diminuendos. It also allowed them to make greater jumps in tone and volume, creating a new sort of discordance.
Changes in Instruments during the Romantic Period
The piano significantly evolved during the Romantic Period. For example, the number of physical keys expanded from five to eight octaves. The materials used to construct piano frames shifted from wood to metal, and the durability of the metal used to manufacture its strings improved. These improvements enriched the pitch range and tonal quality of the piano.
Similarly, the materials used to construct woodwind instruments also improved and expanded their musical quality and variability. Innovations, such as developing the valve for brass instruments, also contributed to a more abundant variety of sounds. As did the invention of entirely new instruments, like the Wagner tuba.
However, one of the most significant changes to instrumentation during the Romantic Era wasn't the nature of the instruments individually, but changes in the instrumentation of the works.
Changes to the orchestra during the Romantic Period
A critical means of expanding the expressiveness of the music – primarily through tonal color, broader dynamics, and richer harmonies – was by increasing the number of instruments required to perform the composition. An extreme example of this is Mahler's Symphony No. 8 in E-flat major (Symphony of a Thousand), which requires two choirs and 120 musicians, including over 70 string musicians.
Orchestras from the Classical Era typically had around 30 musicians. The orchestra continued to grow and evolve throughout the Romantic Period, settling into the orchestra we know today.
As alluded to above, the wind and brass sections grew through the addition of a variety of instruments, such as the piccolo and contrabassoon, both of which greatly expanded the tonal range of the music. The percussion section also saw numerous instruments added, from bass drums to the triangle.
The string section also expanded. It remained comprised of the same four instruments: violin, viola, cello, and double bass. However, the number of each string instrument increased. Enlargin the number of strings allowed for the creation of more subsets within the string section. Romantic composers would use different configurations of small groups of strings to deepen the texture and contrasts within a work.
Another orchestral innovation of the period was intermittent use of non-traditional instruments. Say, cannons needed for Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture as one extreme example.
An expanded orchestra was needed to perform the longer, more dramatic symphonies from the Romantic Era. While the symphony exploded to new intensity during this time, the period is also notable for composers creating a variety of types of "miniature" works.
Changes in musical forms during the Romantic Period
We've seen that formal Classical structures, such as composing symphonies with only four movements, were set aside by Romantic composers. They also composed single-movement works in a variety of distinct forms:
The etude was a short composition intended to both showcase virtuoso skill and as a training exercise for students. Paganini's 24 Caprices for Solo Violin falls into this category, as do many of Chopin's works for the piano.
The prelude, used in earlier eras to introduce a more complete work, was composed as a stand-alone work. Romantic composers did the same with the overture, such as Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet.
The impromptu was a short piece meant to sound as if it was being improvised at that moment. As such, impromptus were typically single instrument works. Most impromptus were written for the piano, yet can be arranged for string instruments.
There were also many formats originating from national or folk music, such as the German lied, Polish polonaise and mazurka, and Viennese waltz.
Another important sub-genre of Romantic composition was intended to tell a specific story or paint a particular scene – program music, which may be a single movement or may have multiple movements.
Rise and scope of program music in the Romantic Period
Program music is music that tells a discrete story. It could be a story from the composer's life or his imagination. Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique: An Episode in the life of an Artist, in Five Parts, was the detailed recounting of the composer's unrequited love for a famous actress of the day. Each movement is named:
Passions
A Ball
Scene in the Fields
March to the Scaffold
Dream of a Night of the Sabbath
As you can tell from the names of the movements, the arc of this story doesn't go well for the artist. Berlioz handed out programs at the performances to explain the story.
In other cases, the story was taken from literature, mythology, or local folklore. Dvorák's The Golden Spinning Wheel is a work based on a Czech poem that tells the story of doomed love and murderous women.
The assumption of program music is that it must have program notes to share with the audience and explain the work. That may have been true when it first gained its greatest popularity during the Romantic Period, but handing out notes isn't the defining characteristic of program music. In part because program music didn't have to tell a narrative story, but could be used to evoke the spirit of a time or place.
The symphonic or tone poem, a popular form of program music from the Romantic era, was intended to paint a scene where it transports the listener, which may or may not be a narrative story. For example, Sibelius composed numerous tone poems from old Finnish mythology, but composed others meant to invoke the spirit of his country and inspire patriotism, such as Finlandia.
Thus, Romantic Era tone poems run the full gamut of Romantic Era inspiration, from sharing intense emotional journeys, re-telling stories from Greek mythology or European literature, exploring fantastical settings (both natural and supernatural), and as odes to a country or culture.
Nationalist expression in Romantic Period music
Sibelius's Finlandia is an example of overt nationalism in Romantic music. In some cases, the work wasn't meant as a patriotic song per se but explicitly drew on folk music traditions the composer wanted to highlight. During the Classical Era, which prioritized the universality of strict, logical forms including strains of folk songs in music composed for nobles, would have been seen as provincial – at best. However, the self-expression popular during the Romantic Period often came out as patriotic love for local traditions during a time of war. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies exemplify this approach.
One need not have been of a particular nation or ethnicity to include its music in new works. German Protestant Brahms turned to Hungarian-Jewish violinists to explore Hungarian themes he used in his Hungarian Dances. Dvorak was hired as Music Director of the National Conservatory of Music of America in part to develop an American classical musical language based on American folk music. His New World Symphony was the result.
The approach of using lands foreign to the composer as inspiration was akin to the nationalist trend and called "exoticism." The distinction between exoticism and nationalism could get blurry. Verdi's Aida, a story placed in Egypt, was commissioned by Cairo's Royal Opera. Puccini's Turandot, based on a commedia dell'arte play written in the 18th century, was set in China.
Exploring Romantic Composers and Their Works
We've covered a number of Romantic Era composers and some of their works. As an artistic epoch spanning anywhere from 80 years to slightly over a century, it spawned a huge volume of amazing composers and music. We named our Spotify list of Romantic Era music "20 Hours of the Best Music from the Romantic Era," and it covers a lot! You'll see we broke it up by form, from symphonies to tone poems through concertos and string ensembles and closing off with the operas and ballets.
If you prefer to start with the "must-know" list of Romantic Era composers, then check out this list of ten of the most influential. You'll find some composers already discussed, plus a few others. For each composer, we've also linked one extraordinary performance of one their most important works.
Romanticism evolves to its logical conclusion: Post-Romanticism
As the foundation of Romantic artistic ideas was personal expression and rule-breaking. It's not surprising that the musical style continued to evolve in significant ways, and by the late 19th century, composers were becoming more abstract in regards to the atmosphere and sentiments they wanted to express – a musical form of Impressionism. They were also starting to break the "rules" of the Romantics by returning to Classical forms inspired by popular Romantic themes of mysticism and the grotesque. Mahler is a prime example of a composer who bridges the Romantic and Post-Romantic Eras. Eventually, the rule-breaking pioneered by the Romantics evolved to the Modernists and Post-modernists, like John Cage, who seems to have rejected the idea of aesthetic rules entirely.
It's no wonder the music of the Romantic Period, with its expressiveness and penchant for telling dramatic stories, remains one the most popular eras of classical music.
Mendelssohn's scherzo from A Midsummer Night's Dream
Technology has opened a host of new professions and opportunities for people around the world. In fact, the music industry has been part of the growth – changing, expanding and evolving to meet new demands. Instead of competing for traditional jobs in an orchestra, among chamber musicians, or as soloists, emerging string musicians are looking at alternative careers that utilize their skills in new ways.
Undergraduate students have more opportunities than ever to enter a music career. With social media and global communications, the prospects are wide open. In fact, you can build your music career on your own terms. However, there are certain steps you need to take to ensure that you reach the goals you have in mind.
1. Build your entrepreneurial mindset
To forge a new path, you have to be willing to take risks. That’s what entrepreneurs do. They take an idea and develop strategies that will allow them to make it a reality. The most successful use determination and drive to make their vision materialize. This means that you’ll need to learn to write a business plan. There are many free resources available online if you search ‘music business plan.’ Remember, you’ll need to do your homework on this. The greatest idea will fail without the right planning.
2. Understand exactly what you want to do
This is sometimes easier said than done. Perhaps you know you want to have a professional music career, but the exact nature of the idea is rather hazy. While writing your business plan, you’ll discover that you’ll need to outline your specific goal. To understand that point, you'll need to be able to articulate your specific intent. Having a few, explicit sentences ready when people ask you about your plan will also keep you on the path of success. Your intent should outline your immediate and future goals.
3. Build a network of contacts that support your idea
In the music industry, much like other industries, who you know can make all the difference between success and failure. For your career, cultivate relationships with new and old colleagues. People who can help you gather ideas and new perspectives for your career projects. It’s also a good idea to build an advisory board of your closest contacts to help counsel your decisions. Effective entrepreneurs understand that they can’t do it alone. They need alternate insights and other's specialties to succeed.
4. Build your selling skills
This doesn’t mean take a course in used car salesmanship. It means that you need to build your charisma. Can you easily describe your vision so that it inspires others? That’s what you need to cultivate. Your performance ability is just as important as your verbal and written skills. Cover letters, grant proposals and other solicitations require strong communication to be effective. If you can articulate your dream so that it compels others, you’ll be able to achieve your goals faster.
5. Plan your work, work your plan
This adage applies to every activity. In order to realize your short and long term goals, you must plan and then do. Break down the steps you need to accomplish to achieve a specific objective. This means having daily “to-do” lists that work toward the end result. Each objective should be part of the steps required to complete another stage in your plan. Although this is part of your initial business plan, writing down a series of tasks to fulfill each day helps keep you motivated and on track.
6. Utilize the Internet in every way
Successful promotions no longer require huge amounts of money to ensure they work. The Internet has leveled the playing field for a number of business enterprises, including the music industry. You can build a following for your music on social media, websites, and YouTube. If you aren’t really computer savvy, there are self-help books available by the millions. Do a little research before launching your online marketing campaign. You can also employ experts to fulfill that part of the process, but remember, the Internet is essential for building a music career.
7. Employ sound budgeting and outreach strategies
No business can operate without a clear budget. By understanding your income and expenses, you’ll be able to make smart decisions about the next steps in your plan. Also, consider employing an agent, if you don’t already have one. An agent will work from commission, so you can earn funds and keep your performance skills sharp while you’re building your music career.
Establishing a music career has never been easier, but that doesn’t mean the journey won’t be hard. Remember to keep your love of music alive and motivate yourself during the process. It’s rare that entrepreneurs become successful overnight. If you maintain your strategies, you can successfully realize your dreams.
Antonio Vivaldi (1678 - 1741) was a prolific, 18th-century Baroque composer who wrote more than 500 concertos. About 230 of those concertos were written for the violin. The most famous of all of Vivaldi’s works is "The Four Seasons” (“Le quattro stagioni”) violin concerto.
Vivaldi’s "Four Seasons": a radical violin concerto
Young people in the 21st-century can have a difficult time envisioning any piece of music as “radical.” In the world of contemporary pop culture, “radical” music means the inclusion of profanity, pejoratives, or rebellious language and sentiments.
During the Baroque period, the idea of radical music was anything that veered from the traditional way of doing things. Other “radical” classical composers of their time periods include Mozart and Stravinsky. Unlike those composers, however, historians cannot claim that Vivialid’s “The Four Seasons” caused any riots. That said, the first performances in Italy, France, and throughout the European continent had frequent concert-attendees and music theorists up in arms about what to make of his newfangled musical notions.
Vivaldi’s inventive music program
One of the reasons Vivaldi’s Four Seasons was so unique is that it was one of the first classical compositions to implement and follow a dynamic music program. You’re probably familiar with the concept of a “music program,” where the music aligns with a specific text. In fact, that style of performance wasn’t made popular until the Romantic era.
“The Four Seasons” movements are actually part of a larger body of 12 total concertos, including "The Four Seasons." The larger work is called, “Il cimento dell’armonia e dell’inventione,” or, “The Contest Between Harmony and Invention.”
Speaking of invention and innovation...
While the program format was one “radical” innovation implemented by Vivaldi, so were some of the techniques required by Vivaldi to play the piece. While he was a lover of opera, the brilliant mind of Vivaldi was captivated by the idea of being able to describe landscapes or scenes in ways that correlated with human behavior and emotions, but without setting the music to specific words.
So, while "The Four Seasons" were composed to honor the themes put forth in the previously-linked sonnets, Vivaldi composed the music in such a way that the technical playing and interpretations of the string musicians told the story - sans narration.
He also included unique dynamic instructions that remain intact in the scores today. The musicians get to use their imaginations, and the imagination of the conductor, to interpret what Vivaldi imagined in his head when he wrote notes to the musicians. For example, asking violinists to play “like a sleeping goatherd” or the viola players to imagine “a barking dog.”
Also worth noting is that the concerto format as we know it didn’t really exist at this time. It was actually Vivaldi, and pieces like "The Four Seasons" setting solo instruments apart (frequently the violin) supported by a chamber ensemble, that gave rise to the concerto form we’re familiar with today.
Part of an early feminist movement
Besides Vivaldi’s musical genius and passion for opera, his appreciation for women and what they could set Vivaldi apart from many of his contemporaries. Vivaldi composed "The Four Seasons" between 1720 and 1723 while employed at “El Pio Ospedale della Pieta,” which was a girls school dedicated to orphaned girls. He worked as the Maestro de Violino (violin teacher) there and wrote some of his most famous works during that period of time.
While we can’t say that he was truly a feminist, we can’t help but appreciate that Antonio Vivaldi spent a significant portion of his working life (1703 - 1733) mentoring talented young female musicians. And, with talent and fame such as his, he certainly had a choice in the matter.
In honor of that, we recommend giving yourself the 48 minute and 54 second gift of the very talented female violinist, Janine Jansen as she plays Antonio Vivaldi’s “"The Four Seasons"” at Internationaal Kamermuziek Festival 2014. Enjoy listening to a narrative that Vivaldi’s musical genius brings to life in the mind’s eye.
